Eusebius, EH.7.26-29: The "unmasking" of Paul of Samosata

Image: Paul de Samosata predikt voor de vroeg-christelijke gemeenschap (Paul of Samosata preaches for the early Christian community), etching by Jan Luyken (1700), Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

This is an occasional series of readings from and brief notes and commentary upon Eusebius of Caesarea’s The Ecclesiastical History. Here is Book 7, chapter 26-29. Listen here:

Notes and Commentary:

These chapters describe the transitions of various bishops in the city centers of early Christianity, as one bishop was succeeded by another. It describes,in particular, the conclusion of Dionysius of Alexandria’s long and effective ministry. It also describes disputers over and the “unmasking” of Paul of Samosata at Antioch on the charges he held Jesus to be merely human and not divine.

Chapter 26 describes the conclusion of Dionysius of Alexandria’s ministry, including several anti-Sabellian letters sent to various bishops, including four to his namesake Dionysius of Rome.

He also wrote a treatise in letter form to Timothy “his boy” (son? servant?) on Nature, another on Temptations to Euphranor, an exposition on Ecclesiastes, and other works.

Chapter 27 turns to describe various transitions:

Xystus at Rome was succeeded by Dionysius of Rome.

Demetrian at Antioch was succeeded by Paul of Samosata, who held “low and mean views as to Christ.” A council was held to discuss Paul of Samosata’s belief, which the aged Dionysius of Alexandria could not attend but to which he wrote his opinion. Paul was confronted as “a spoiler of Christ’s flock.”

Chapter 28 describes those at this council, the best known of whom included Firmilian of Cappadocian Caesarea, Gregory and Athenadore of Pontus, Helenus of Tarsus, Nicomas of Iconium, Hymenaeus of Jerusalem, Theotecnus of Caesarea, and Maximus of Bostra.  Paul and his party tried to conceal his heterodox views, while the orthodox pushed to reveal them!

At that time Dionysius passed away after 17 years as bishop and was succeeded by Maximus in Alexandria.

In the Roman Empire, Gallienus was succeeded by Claudius, who then handed over the government to Aurelian.

Chapter 29 describes a final synod held in the reign of Aurelian in which Paul of Samosata was “unmasked,” condemned as heterodox, and excommunicated from the “catholic [universal] churches under heaven” (note the Greek has “churches” plural, not singular). His chief accuser was a man named Malchion, the head of a school of rhetoric and elder at Antioch. He had a dispute with Paul and stenographers took notes, which, Eusebius, says, could be read in his day.

Conclusion:

These chapters provide an account of the end of Dionysius’s ministry, as well as the “unmasking” or denunciation of Paul of Samosata (of Antioch) for his low Christology. It shows the early controversies over Christology that would later be addressed in the great ecumenical councils. As usual, Eusebius stresses the orderly transitions of the bishops, parallel to the transitions of the Roman emperors.

JTR

Eusebius, EH.7.25: Dionysius on Revelation

Image: St. John Monastery on the Island of Patmos, Greece

This is an occasional series of readings from and brief notes and commentary upon Eusebius of Caesarea’s The Ecclesiastical History. Here is Book 7, chapter 25. Listen here. Or watch here:

Notes and Commentary:

This chapter conveys the observations of Dionysius of Alexandria on the book of Revelation, or the Apocalypse of John.

He notes that some in the past had rejected the book as “unintelligible and illogical.” They also said that it appeared under a false title, since it is neither an Apocalypse, which clearly reveals anything, nor is it by John the Apostle. He notes that some claimed it was written by the heretical teacher Cerinthus, since it taught the kingdom would be on earth (a literal millennium).

Dionysius, however, says the book is not to be rejected, but it cannot be understood on a literal sense. He confesses he has reached the conclusion that the book’s thoughts are “too high for his comprehension” but “I do not reject what I have not understood, but I rather wonder that I did not indeed see them.”

He also questions whether the John of the title is John the Apostle, since in the Gospel of John and the Johannine epistles, the apostle John never explicitly identifies himself as does the author of Revelation (see Rev 1:1, et al). Furthermore, the John of Revelation is never explicitly identified as John the Apostle (using terms like “the beloved disciple” or the “brother of James”). He points out that there were other early Christians named John like John Mark in Acts and that there were two tombs in Ephesus which were said to hold someone named John. He adds that the vocabulary and style of the Gospel and epistles of John are similar, and they have common themes (like “light,” “truth,” the command to “love one another”, etc.) which are not stressed in Revelation. Revelation is also written, according to Dionysius, in a less polished Greek style. He makes sure that he offers these observations not to denigrate the book, which he respects, but to point out its dissimilarity with the Gospel and epistles of John and to understand Revelation better.

Conclusion:

This chapter indicates how the book of Revelation continued to be one of the most debated and discussed books of the NT canon and how controversy surrounding it led to a slower process of its recognition and acceptance among early Christians. It is also interesting to see how Dionysius approached Revelation as a pre-critical interpreter, arguing that it not be interpreted literally but according to “a deeper meaning” which “underlies the words.” He also freely questions the authorship of the book, suggesting that it was not from the apostle John, and the quality of its literary style, but these considerations did not disqualify its acceptance and usefulness.

JTR

Eusebius, EH.7.24: Dionysius, Nepos, Revelation, and the Millennium

Image: Mummy painting of a young boy (Eutychus) from Roman Egypt, c. AD 150. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

This is an occasional series of readings from and brief notes and commentary upon Eusebius of Caesarea’s The Ecclesiastical History: Book 7, chapter 24. Listen here.

Notes and Commentary:

This chapter discusses two treatises titled On Promises written by Dionysius of Alexandria in reply to the teaching of an Egyptian bishop named Nepos.

Nepos advocated a more literal form of Scriptural interpretation “after a more Jewish fashion.” For the book of Revelation, in particular, he taught there would be a literal millennium on earth. Nepos’s book (no longer extant) was titled Refutation of the Allegorists.

The first book in On Promises dealt with interpretation and the second on the book of Revelation.

Dionysus first expressed his respect for Nepos (already deceased) for his faith, devotion, and diligence in Scripture study. He then, however, stated that his love for truth required he correct Nepos’s supposed errors.

He notes that a meeting was held in the nome (division) of Arsinoë, where schism and defection of whole churches over Nepos’s teaching had taken place. Dionysius discussed Nepos’s book for three straight days, conversing day and night. In the end, the leader of this movement, Coracion, was convinced by the contrary arguments and rejected the teaching.

Conclusion:

This chapter highlights early disputes relating to the teaching of Nepos over proper interpretation of Scripture and of Revelation and the idea of a millennium, in particular. Dionysius rejects an overly literal interpretive method and is commended for his ability to correct errors in this teaching and restore unity among the churches. This illustrates the controversial nature of book of Revelation among early Christians, which many were slow to acknowledge as canonical. We also see another focus on the importance of unity in the church.

JTR

Eusebius, EH.7.22-23: Dionysius on How Christians Endured Plague

Image: Roman funerary mask, from Balansura, Egypt, c. AD 100-200, Penn Museum, Philadelphia.

This is an occasional series of readings from and brief notes and commentary upon Eusebius of Caesarea’s The Ecclesiastical History: Book 7, chapters 22-23. Listen here.

Notes and Commentary:

These chapters describe a terrible pestilence in Alexandria that followed the time of war described in the previous chapters (7.20-21), as well as a period of peace and stability that followed. Eusebius’s source is again a letter by Dionysius.

Chapter 22 describes how the plague in those days fell like the plague of the firstborn in Egypt in that it took so many lives, leaving no household untouched.

For the Christians, the plague came after their experience of persecution, having been driven out to meet in “field, desert, ship, inn, prison,” and the hardships of wartime. The believers, however, saw this, like other misfortunes, as “a source of discipline and testing.”

He gives a glowing report of how the Christians cared for one another during the plague, including tending the sick and dying, even when it resulted in the losing of their own lives. Dionysius compares these deaths as like those of the martyrs. He also notes that the Christians even took special care in the burial of their fellow believers.

He contrasts this with the behavior of the heathen who, when their loved ones were in the first stages of the disease, thrust them out and abandoned them. The gravely ill were put out on the road half-dead and the corpses of the dead treated as “vile refuse.”

When peace returned, Dionysius composed another festal letter to the believers in Egypt as well as treatises on the Sabbath and Exercise (peri gymnasiou).

In a letter to Hermammon and the brethren in Egypt, he described the wickedness of Decius and his successors as well as the peace that came to the church under Gallienus.

Chapter 23 describes the relative peace that came to the church after the capture of Valerian and his replacement as emperor by Gallienus. After Gallienus overcame an internal challenge from Macrianus, it was though the clouds fell back and the sun shone. Dionysius extolls Gallienus for leading the monarchy to put aside its “old age and cleansed itself from its former wickedness."

Conclusion:

These chapters describe the perseverance of the early Christians in the face of persecution, war, and plague, till they entered into another era of peace. It is particularly striking to see how Dionysius contrasts the way that Christians handled the plague by extending love and care to others, in contrast to the heathen. Though this picture might be somewhat idealized, it does show how early Christians might have presented a winsome witness to their pagan neighbors and continued to grow despite the opposition lodged against them.

JTR

Eusebius, EH.7.20-21: Dionysius's Festal Letters in the Midst of Persecution and War

Image: Ruins of Roman Amphitheater, Alexandria, Egypt

This is an occasional series of readings from and brief notes and commentary upon Eusebius of Caesarea’s The Ecclesiastical History: Book 7, chapters 20-21. Listen here.

Notes and Commentary:

These chapters describe the various festal letters of Dionysius of Alexandria, who served as a major source for Eusebius in describing this time period.

Chapter 20 begins with mention of Dionysius’s various letters written on the occasion of the Pascha. This recalls the Quartodeciman controversy concerning the time when the passion and resurrection of Christ was to be remembered. Dionysius apparently favored the commemoration after the vernal equinox and not at the time of the Jewish Passover (14 Nisan). It is also noted that he wrote these letters even while the various persecutions were still underway.

Chapter 21 describes Dionysius’s return to Alexandria during a short-term peace of the church, which was interrupted when war broke out among various factions at Alexandria. At this time, the Christians were not able to assemble, so Dionysius had to communicate to those in Alexandria during the Pascha by letter “as if he were someone in a foreign country, from Alexandria itself.”

An excerpt is provided from a letter in which the bishop shares his frustration with not being able to see the brethren in person or even to get his correspondence through to them. He notes the danger involved in passing from one end of the city to the other, making it harder than traveling from one country to another. The central street was harder to traverse than was the desert crossed by the Israelites during their exodus. The harbor and rivers were sometimes as dry as when the Red Sea was removed and at other times prone to flood, as in the days of Noah. The waters were also at time red with the blood of the killed, as in the time of Pharaoh. Water and air were foul with the smell of rotting corpses.

These conditions would lead to famine (as described in the next chapter, 7.22). War and pestilence greatly reduced the population, removing especially the elderly, so that those who were once the youngest were now the oldest. The assessment is quite pessimistic, as Dionysius says that the time seemed to be drawing near when humans would be wiped out completely.

Conclusion:

Eusebius continues to draw on Dionysius of Alexandria and his various letters, including, here, his festal letters, as a key source. No sooner had Christians escaped persecution from the state than they were caught up in war and famine. Dionysius provides a vivid and sometimes heart-wrenching description of the horrific sufferings of civilians in times of war and pestilence. His descriptions of frustration with confinement to home and lack of access to person-to-person Christian assemblies will certainly resonate with any who have had to deal with quarantines due to war or disease. Still, he offers encouragement by relating his times to Old Testament antecedents, even if his vision for the future of humanity remains dim.

JTR

Eusebius, EH.7.11: Dionysius and the Valerian Persecution

Image: Modern view of the Libyan desert.

This is an occasional series of readings from and brief notes and commentary upon Eusebius of Caesarea’s The Ecclesiastical History: Book 7, chapter 11. Listen here.

Notes and Commentary:

This chapter surveys the experiences of persecution and suffering of Dionysius of Alexandria and others during the Valerian persecution. Dionysius’s writings provided a key source for Eusebius much of the history of this era.

Eusebius begins by citing Dionysius’s work against the bishop Germanus, in which he describes being taken with other Christian leaders before the magistrate Aemilianus who urged him to renounce the faith and to which Dionysius says, “I testified outright that I worship the only God and none other, nor would I change or ever cease to be a Christian.” With that he was banished to a desert village called Cephro.

A dialogue is cited between the magistrate and Dionysius in which the magistrate forbade the exile from holding assemblies or entering the cemeteries. Christians apparently did the latter to remember or commemorate the deaths of their martyrs.

Dionysius is then cited as saying, “But we did not abstain from the visible assembling of ourselves with the Lord.” He adds that in Cephro they were at first reviled and even stoned “but afterwards not a few of the heathen left their idols and turned to God.” He sees even his banishment as part of God’s providential plan to spread the Christian faith.

Later removed to a place called Colluthion, Dionsysius relays that he was at first greatly vexed, but cheered when he found this place was closer to the city (Alexandria), and he might have more opportunity to fellowship with the brethren.

Eusebius then cites a letter from Dionysius to Domitius and Didymus in which he also describes the persecution of those times, noting: “Only understand that men and women, both old men and lads, both girls and aged women, both soldiers and civilians, both every race and every age, some enduring scourgings and fire, others the sword, conquered in the fight and received their crowns.”

He adds how he and four others (Gaius, Faustus, Peter, and Paul) were forcefully carried away and he, Gaius, and Peter were left in a “lonely, parched spot in Libya.”

He notes how some presbyters secretly visited the brethren in the city (Alexandria), and other presbyters better known, Faustinus and Aquila, wandered about in Egypt. Some of the deacons were martyred and some survived. Among the survivors a deacon named Eusebius distinguished himself by courageously ministering to the confessors in prison “at no small risk” to himself, and even cared for the corpses of “the blessed and perfect martyrs.”

Eusebius notes that this deacon, also named Eusebius, became bishop of Laodicea, and one of the presbyters, Maximus, succeeded Dionysius as bishop of Alexandria, while the presbyter Faustus had died a martyr at an old age, being beheaded during Eusebius of Caesarea’s times.

Conclusion:

This chapter expands on the Valerian persecution by providing the firsthand experiences of Dionysius and others. It is another reminder of the sufferings of the early Christians and how the martyrs and confessors became the heroes of the early church.

JTR

Eusebius, EH.7.7-9: Dionysius's Epistles on the (Re)Baptism Controversy

Image: Remains of a cross-shaped baptistery in ancient Laodicea, in modern day Turkey.

This is an occasional series of readings from and brief notes and commentary upon Eusebius of Caesarea’s The Ecclesiastical History: Book 7, chapters 7-9. Listen here.

Notes and Commentary:

These chapters continue to report on the letters of Dionysius of Alexandria to various persons regarding the baptism controversy. Dionysius sided with Stephen in opposition to Cyprian of Carthage and his argument that the lapsed must be re-baptized.

Chapter 7 describes the third letter of Dionysius On Baptism to Philemon, a presbyter of Rome. In it he claims to have received a vision which affirmed the propriety of his reading the works of heretics so that he might be able to understand and refute them.

He claims that in his practice he was following “the rule and pattern” of Heraclas of Alexandria, called here papa or “pope”, who did not require those who had drifted into false teaching to be re-baptized when restored.

He also notes that the African practice extended back to previous bishops.

He next cites the fourth letter of Dionysius On Baptism directed to Dionysius of Rome, at this time a presbyter but later the bishop.

Chapter 8 continues to describe this fourth letter as dealing with Novatian, whom he says falsely accused “our most compassionate Lord Jesus Christ of being without mercy.”

Chapter 9 describes a fifth letter of Dionysius to Xystus, bishop of Rome. Here he describes a brother in Alexandria who had received a disorderly baptism at the hands of heretics and with a tender conscience desired rebaptism, but this was refused by Dionysius.

Beyond these letters of Dionysius, two others are mentioned, a second to Xystus and the church at Rome, and another to Dionysius of Rome.

Conclusion:

These chapters expand upon the (re)baptism controversy and Dionysius’s role as an advocate through his letters in opposition to the position of Cyprian of Carthage and others who were promoting the necessity of baptism for the lapsed. He appeals to the leaders of the Roman church, noting, in particular his agreement with Heraclas of Alexandria.

JTR

Eusebius, EH.6.45-46: Dionysius' Letter to Novatus

This is an occasional series of readings from and brief notes and commentary upon Eusebius of Caesarea’s The Ecclesiastical History: Book 6, chapters 45-46. Listen here.

Notes and Commentary:

These chapters describe some of the pastoral letters written by Dionysius of Alexandria during the Novatian Schism.

Chapter 45 concerns Dionysius’s letter to Novatus (Novatianus) himself.

In this letter which begins with Dionysius addressing Novatus as “brother,” he urges unity at all costs, exhorting, “For a man ought to suffer anything and everything rather than divide the church of God….” He says it is better to be a martyr over schism than idolatry, since refusal to have unity hurts many souls but martyrdom due to idolatry costs only one’s own soul. His final word is a call to cleave to peace.

Chapter 46 describes various other letters written by Dionysius regarding the Novatian Controversy, including letters to churches and individuals on repentance, a key theme in the aftermath of those who had fallen away during the Decian persecution, and to Origen on martyrdom.

Note is also made to his letter to Cornelius of Rome regarding a synod to be held in Antioch by some who were sympathetic to Novatus. He also mentions in this the death of Fabius and his replacement by Demetrian as bishop of Antioch, as well as the death while in prison of Alexander of Jerusalem, whom he calls “that wonderful man.”

Finally, note is made of letters to the church at Rome including a letter on peace and one on repentance, as well as letters to individuals.

Conclusion:

These chapters note the role of Dionysius in exhortation and peace-making in the various Christian communities during the Novatian disruption. He expresses a charitable but firm spirit in addressing Novatian and makes plain that unity should be preserved above all. His work and that of others, no doubt, contained and lessened the schism brought about by Novatus.

This ends book 6.

JTR

Eusebius, EH.6.41: Dionysius Describes the Decian Persecution

This is an occasional series of readings from and brief notes and commentary upon Eusebius of Caesarea’s The Ecclesiastical History Book 6, chapter 41. Listen here.

Notes and Commentary:

This chapter continues the report of the Decian persecutions from Dionysius of Alexandria, here citing his letter to Fabius of Antioch.

He notes that the persecution in Alexandria actually began a year before Decian’s edict against Christians and reflected a spiritual battle.

First, an old man named Metras was stoned when he refused to blaspheme.

Next, a woman named Quinta was dragged through the streets and stoned when she refused to participate in pagan worship.

Then, the goods of the Christians were plundered, as the believers mentioned in Hebrews 10:3 had also suffered.

Next, a virgin named Apollonia had her teeth broken by blows and cast herself into the fire prepared for her.

Serapion was tortured, had his limbs broken, and was thrown headlong from upper story to his death.

When news came of the edict, the persecution only intensified.

All were filled with fear; some recanted their faith, but others were faithful to death.

Among the martyrs the first after the edict was Julian, a man unable to walk. He was put to death along with one of the men who helped to carry him, named Cronion Eunus. The two were paraded through town on camels, then beaten and burned in quicklime.

A soldier named Besas, who stood by at the death of these two, also confessed faith and was beheaded.

Three others, Macar [Blessed] of Lybia, and Epimachus and Alexander, were imprisoned and then burned to death alive.

Four women were put to death, including Ammonarion, a “holy virgin,” Mercuria, an older woman, and Dionysia, a mother of many children.

Three Egyptians, Hero, Ater, and Isidore, were seized and tortured, along with a boy of about 15 named Dioscurus. The first three were killed, but the governor released Dioscurus impressed by his character.

A certain Nemesion was falsely accused of being a robber and then of being a Christian. He was tortured worse than robbers and was burnt between them, thus becoming like Christ in his crucifixion between thieves.

When a Christian on trial was wavering, he was encouraged by a group of Christian soldiers, Ammon, Zeno, Ptolemy, and Ingennus, along with an old man named Theophilus. When this prisoner did not deny Christ, thanks to their support, attention turned to these men and they too confessed they were Christians, knowing their suffering, but exulting in their witness.

Conclusion:

This chapter continues to describe the Decian persecution and offers praise to the heroic martyrs. These are described like athletes who engaged in “contests” for the faith, and, though killed, were victorious.

JTR

Eusebius, EH.6.39-40: The Decian Persecution and the Sufferings of Origen and Dionysius

Image: Coin with image of the Roman Emperor Trajan Decius (c. A.D. 201-251).

This is an occasional series of readings from and brief notes and commentary upon Eusebius of Caesarea’s The Ecclesiastical History: Book 6, chapters 39-40. Look here.

Notes and Commentary:

These chapters describe the Decian persecution and the sufferings endured by men like Origen and Dionysius during this time.

Chapter 39 describes the rise of the emperor Decius (c. 201-251; ruled 249-251) and his persecution of Christians. Eusebius says this came from Decius’s enmity toward Philip, who was either a Christian or sympathetic to them, and who had members of his household who were Christians.

Fabian became a martyr at Rome and was succeeded as bishop by Cornelius.

Alexander of Jerusalem made confession before the Roman court at Caesarea for a second time and died in prison as an elderly man, being succeeded by Mazabanes.

In Antioch, Babylas, likewise, died in prison. He was succeeded by Fabius.

Origen also fell under “special attack.” He was imprisoned, chained, and tortured, including having his feet stretched In the stocks. A reliable first hand account, says Eusebius, is available in his letters.

Chapter 40 turns to describe the persecution of Dionysius of Alexandria, a drawing from his letter against a certain Germanus.

He describes how a frumentarius (officer) was sent to search for him for four days, but, in the providence of God, he had simply remained at in his home and had not been discovered.

After these four days, Dionysius, his “boys” (sons or pupils or servants), and some of the brethren took flight. They were then arrested and taken to the town of Toposiris.

A brother named Timothy told a group at a marriage feast of the bishop’s arrest and they rushed the guards to deliver a  somewhat reluctant Dionysius from his captors.

Conclusion:

These chapter describe the beginnings of the Decian persecution and the martyrdoms and sufferings of some the prominent leaders, including Origen, who had written about and urged martyrdom and faithfulness under persecution upon others and now experienced the same, as well as Dionysius. Rather than frustrate the movement, these persecutions seemed to embolden and encourage the early Christians, who could now look back at those who suffered as heroes of the faith.

JTR